
Class TX v3^v5 



Book_ 






CofpightN' 



COFi'RIGKT DEPOSnV . 



First Lessons 



IN 



FOOD AND DIET 



BY 



ELLEN H. RICHARDS 

Instructor in Sanitary Chemistry in the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology 



WHITCOMB & BARROWS 

BOSTON 

1904 




Two Oopies <?ei-«Mvea 

' OCT 1 1904 I 

'Vroyrfsrht Emry 

\OLi*.%9 CL XXo. Na 
COPY B 






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(, 



COPYRIGHT 1904 
ELLEN H. RICHARDS 



Composition and Electrotj'ping by 
Thomas Todd, 1-1 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. 



INTRODUCTION 

FIRST LESSONS IN FOOD AND DIET 

Each living thing has its food, without which it dies. 
This food may vary within certain limits ; beyond them 
disease sets in, even if life continues. 

Every child who has kept chickens or rabbits knows 
how carefully and regularly they need to be fed. Every 
child who has grown house plants or cultivated a garden 
plot knows how necessary air, water, and soil are for their 
life and growth. 

It is only needful to transfer this knowledge to ourselves 
to see that we, as living beings, need our food in the same 
way ; and that air and water, as well as meat and milk, 
sugar and eggs, arc our foods, without which we cannot 
live. 

The baby's food is milk, which contains all the sub- 
stances needed except oxygen of the air. This must be 
breathed in through the lungs. To milk is added for the 
child of two years starch in various forms, rice, potatoes, 
wheat bread, corn mush, etc. For the six years old there 
are added a few fruits and vegetables, eggs and a very little 

meat. 

iii 



iv Introdtiction 

The youth of twelve to fifteen years takes with profit 
all kinds of food if it is well cooked and not in the form of 
soggy bread or greasy, fried things. The young person 
from eighteen to twenty-five has a digestion which even the 
worst cooking does not always spoil, but there is even then 
a risk in overtaxing willing stomachs, for bad effects may 
not be manifest for many years. 

If the chicken is to be killed as soon as grown, then 
it may be stuffed with food to prepare it for market, but if 
it is to be kept as a useful laying fowl for the term of its 
natural life, it is far better that it learn to work for most 
of its food cleaning the garden and orchard of grubs. It 
thus develops naturally. 

In the same way, if a plant is to be used only at an 
exhibition it may be forced to bloom by extra fertilizer and 
a hothouse atmosphere, but if it is to bear wholesome fruit 
or fertile seed in due season and to live to bear again, then 
it is treated with the utmost moderation and not overfed. 

As human beings, what we all wish to know is what to 
eat, when, and how much. We also ask for a warning bell 
to caution us when we are liable to go wrong. This much 
every well person needs. The really sick must have a 
special treatment, but at this time we are concerned only 
with that food which keeps us well and strong and happy. 



LESSON I 

PLANT LIFE 

THERE are two kinds of plants, those which 
build up their stems, leaves, and fruit from 
the mineral matter in the soil, the water in soil 
and air, and from the carbon dioxide and perhaps 
ammonia in the air. They are able to do this 
by aid of sunlight, which furnishes the energy 
for the chemical reactions needed to accomplish 
this transformation from dead mineral to living 
organic matter. These green leaved plants and 
their products form the food of animals which 
then for the most part eat each other, from the 
tiniest one-celled organism to the lion, king of 
the jungle. Even the so-called vegetable eaters 
take with the grass and leaves, nuts and fruits 
millions of minute living animal forms. 

Another kind of plant lives upon the sub- 
stances already formed by the green leaved 
plants and those transformed by the animals. 
These plants, for the most part without color, 



2 Food and Diet 

are destructive ; they usually work on dead mat- 
ter, reducing it to a condition to serve again as 
food for the green plants. At least they are 
found wherever decay is going on. A bit of 
apple, a leaf, a piece of cheese, left out in damp 
air " molds," as we say. These various molds 
are little plants doing their best to make the 
material ready for grass or apple tree food again. 

Animals, man included, are made up of mil- 
lions of small cells, which do their work in a 
like manner. They live upon the ready pre- 
pared substances which the blood stream carries 
to them and change this material to forms which 
the green plants can use again, giving off CO2, 
water, ammonia, etc. These cells, like the molds 
and other destructive plants, can live on either 
vegetable or animal matter, that is, we can eat 
either lettuce, peas, corn, apples, or meat, and 
derive health and strength from them all, but, 
like the green plants, we must have water in 
abundance and air, only we take oxygen from 
the air and give back to it the carbon dioxide 
which the green plants need. 

In the course of this transformation in the 
living cells, some of the energy which the sun- 
light gave to the plant that was eaten is released, 



Lesson I ^ 

and our bodies make use of this energy to keep 
warm, to work, think, and feel. 

The source of bodily heat, of human energy 
and power to work, is in the chemical changes 
which the food, whether animal or vegetable, 
undergoes in the cells and tissues of the body. 



ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE FIRST LESSON 

1. A growing plant or several of a kind; 
one allowed to go without water, another covered 
tightly by a bell jar or inverted bottle, and one 
cared for and watered most carefully. 

2. An aquarium with gold fish, or a cage 
with a toad to be fed with flies, or some other 
animal to be cared for. 

3. Bread or cheese, leaves or fruit, allowed 
to mold under another bell jar. 

4. Oats or corn planted in the pores of a 
moist sponge placed in the top of a tumbler or 
jar two-thirds filled with water. 

5. A magnifying glass or a microscope is 
helpful. If at hand, show the cells from the 
amoeba of the mouth and blood corpuscles, 
also the miscellaneous organisms from stagnant 
water. 

6. Yeasts and various fermentino: solutions. 



LESSON II 

CVERYTHING is food for something else, 
-■— ' each after its kind, and matter, carbon, oxy- 
gen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, for instance, is kept 
circulating like gold and silver, which is now- 
made into amulets and images, now lining drink- 
ing cups, now buried in the earth, now stamped 
as coin and passing from hand to hand until 
melted and worked into rings again. It is gold 
or silver all the while. 

The food of mankind is to be here con- 
sidered, and we begin with the earliest and 
simplest, the food of the infant, milk. 

This is chiefly composed of ^m^ great classes 
of food stuffs, classes we shall find in all natural 
food materials. 

I. Water; eighty-seven per cent, more than 
three-fourths of the whole, and we shall find that 
our food must always contain a large amount of 
water, or if it does not, that we must drink 
liquids to make up the amount. 



Lesson II 5 

2. The curd of the milk ; which contains 
not only casein but albumen and other proteids.^ 
This class of substance is also found in all living 
things, whether animal or vegetable. 

3. Fat ; which we know best as cream or 
butter. This is also common to both veG:etable 
and animal substances, as olive oil and fat of meat. 

4. Sugar; dissolved in the water of the milk 
so that we do not recognize it at once. Except 
this suo'ar of milk, most sus^ars are derived from 
the juices of plants and their fruits, but so abun- 
dant and universal are these that all races of 
mankind have suirar in their diet. 

CD 

5. Mineral salts ; also dissolved in the water 
of milk, so that we do not think about them in 
that form. Salt, as we put it on our food, and 
the fertilizer we water plants with are instances 
of mineral food. The mineral salts are as need- 
ful for the life of the cell as the other classes. 
As has been proved by experiment, it is not 
difficult to learn the composition of milk and the 
amount of the various substances which the child 
requires. 

The infant in the first weeks sleeps quietly 

iProteid and protein are tenns used to designate those nitrog- 
enous substances which in some way not yet clearly understood are 
essential to life or living matter. 



6 Food and Diet 

most of the time and gains in weight rapidly, 
has doubled by the end of the third month, and 
trebled by the end of one year. 

As activity increases, more of the food is 
devoted to energy — power to move arms and 
legs, and so great is this demand that in the 
second year the child adds only one-fifth to its 
weight, during the third year one-tenth, and 
from the age of four until eight or ten years 
old the child gains only about four pounds a 
year in weight, but very greatly in strength and 
control of muscles and nerves. 

At first the infant takes about one-seventh 
its weight daily in food, twenty-four to thirty- 
two ounces of milk (at the end of the second 
week 500 grams, at the end of the eighth 800 
grams, at the end of the twentieth 950 grams). 



The Average Percentage Composition of 200 Samples of 

Human Milk 



Water. 


Fat. 


Nitrogenous 
substances. 


Sugar. 


Salts. 


87.41 


13.78 


2.29 


6.21 


0.31 



The Average of 800 Analyses of Cows' Milk 
87.17 1 3. GO I 3.55 I 4.88 I 0.71 



Lesson II 7 

It will be seen that cows' milk is not an 
exact substitute for mothers' milk, and if diluted 
it is still less so, since the proportions are not 
the same. The potassium salts which seem so 
necessary to the building up of the blood cor- 
puscles and body tissue are deficient as well as 
the fat. A favorite recommendation of physi- 
cians is to allow fresh, clean milk to stand, pro- 
tected from dust, on ice or in a cold place for 
four or five hours, and then pour off the upper 
third, ten ounces, from a quart (if more fat is 
desired, then only six ounces), add twenty ounces 
of sterilized whey, which contains the sugar and 
mineral salts of the whole milk with some albu- 
men. To give the potassium salts, barley broth 
is frequently used after the first weeks. A well- 
strained, transparent barley broth contains not 
over one per cent of starch. At the age of a 
few months veal broth, which contains lime salts, 
is frequently given, and if the milk is poor must 
be used if the material for the bones is to be 
furnished. If milk whey is not used, then milk 
sugar dissolved in water is added, for the child 
needs more heat-giving food than the adult, 
since his bodily surface, from which heat is 



8 Food and Diet 

being lost, is three times as much in proportion 
to his weis^ht, and he is more active and uses 
relatively more energy. 

All food for infants must be carefully pro- 
tected from the destructive plants before referred 
to. These plants are in the air everywhere ; are 
more plentiful in warm, dusty places, and as 
milk is a most attractive food for them, it must 
be kept cold and covered. 

For extended treatment of infants' feeding, 
see such books as Holt's, Griffith's and others. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE SECOND LESSON 

Milk, whole, diluted, top milk ; calculations of 
food values of a pint of the various sorts. The 
principles of these calculations should be thor- 
oughly learned at this point to serve as a foun- 
dation for future work. 

Tests by means of simple apparatus at hand. 
Specific gravity, fat by some of the lactoscopes 
or by a Babcock testing machine. 

If a laboratory is at hand, test for sugar, 
phosphates, and albumen. 

Examination of bones for mineral salts and 
organic matter. 



LESSON III 

D Y the end of the child's first year the saliva 
^-^ has increased, and thereby tlie power of 
forming sugar from starch has been gained (for 
a child under six months of age starchy foods 
are indigestible), and as the teeth appear some 
solid food is permissible. But the mucous mem- 
brane is very sensitive, and the whole bodily 
structure is very delicate and easily injured. 

All indications point to a simple, non-stimu- 
lating, fairly monotonous diet. The child at the 
breast receives the same food day after day, and 
the pleasures of the table do not appeal to nor 
agree with the young child. No " sweets," des- 
serts, or delicacies are needed, but the quanti- 
ties of food must be relatively larger as the 
child grows older to supply the activity which 
promotes growth. 

The child has no reserves of stored food and 
little excess of digestive power, so cannot bear 
deprivation or excess without injury. In fact 
he is in a state of very delicate balance of forces 
which may be easily disturbed. 

9 



lo Food and Diet 

In the second year the food should continue 
to be chiefly milk with some broth, but always 
fluid or soft solids. There should not be 
allowed in the diet any of the following sub- 
stances or their relatives: cellulose, mineral or 
strong acids, coffee, tea, spice, made dishes, sal- 
ads, etc. A little breast of fowl, rice cooked in 
milk, white bread, are sufficient additions. 

The child of three to six years old need not 
be confined to fluids, but the food should still 
contain much water, broths rather than meat, 
ripe, sub-acid fruits, weak cocoa occasionally, oat- 
meal and wheat preparations strained after cook- 
ing to eliminate the cellulose. Eggs, especially 
the yolks, are valuable. If the yolks are cooked 
separately they may be boiled hard so that they 
crumble to powder, which is not only more 
digestible but more acceptable to most children 
than the running yolk. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE THIRD LESSON 

For practice in making up bills of fare and 
for learning the composition of some common 
food substances, the following tables are taken 
from "The Cost of Food."^ 

1 " The Cost of Food." Ellen H. Richards. 



Lesson III 



II 



TABLE V 
One Day's Menu for a Child of Six to Nine Years of Age 



Required. 



One and one-half pint milk . . 

One-half pound bread .... 

One-eighth pound dry rice (one- 
half pound cooked) . . . . 



Four ounces orange . . . 

Two ounces egg 

One-half ounce butter . . . 



679.0 
226.8 

56.6 

114.0 

56.6 

14.0 



J3 in 



1147.0 



88.8 
147.0 

51.5 
41.7 
13.5 
12.5 



355.0 



3 OJ 

O <J 

n e . 

■u rt !fl 

i: 3 e 

• - u) M 



22.3 
20.3 

5.4 
0.5 
7.3 
0.1 



55.0 



27.1 
2.7 

0.3 

0.1 

5.3 

11.0 



47.4 



-^6 

■e 2 



33.9 
119.8 

45.4 
9.7 



208.8 



At average prices this would cost twelve to 
thirteen cents. 

Estimated Daily Ouantities of Necessary Food 















, 






E 


01 

u 

c 


3 U 


W) 


m 
«> 






Ml 
o 


JO r/l 

3 S 


itroger 
substa 
grams 


be 


>» to 




oa 


H 


Q 


^ 


dn 


ID 


Girl of four . . 


13.3 


1203 


197 


44.8 


41.5 


102.7 


Boy of six . . . 


18.0 


1560 


311 


63.7 


45.8 


197.3 


Girl of nine . . 


22.7 


1660 


328 


61.3 


47.0 


207.7 



12 



Food and Diet 



TABLE VI 
Approximate Composition of Some Common Food Materials 



One pound contains 



Apples 

Barley (pearled) 

Beef (round) 

Beef juice (as purchased) . 
Beef juice (as it should be) 
Bouillon and consomme . 

Bread (white) 

Butter 

Cheese (American pale) . 

Chicken 

Cream 

Cream soup 

Eggs (whole) 

Eggs (yolk) 

I^entil meal 

Milk (whole) 

Mutton (leg) 

Oatmeal 

Peas (sugar), shelled . . . 

Potatoes 

Prunes (dried) 

Raisins 

Rice 

Wheatlet 



12 c 



25.0 



8.8 



10. 



18.0 



20.0 
15.0 
10.0 



01.5 
10.8 
G4.2 
0:1.0 

88.0 
00.0 

;i5.4 

11.0 

;u.o 

48.5 
74.0 
87.4 
00.0 
40.5 
10.7: 
87.0 
51.4 

7.2 
81.8 
62. 
10.0 
14.0 

0.0 
10.4 



1.8 
42.2 
80.0 
22.2 
3l'0 
11.0 
4:;.l 

4.5 
1:30.0 
07.0 
10.:] 
2:15 
50.4 
71.5 
115.5 
14.0 
07.5 
70.0 
15.4 

8.0 

8.0 

11.;^ 

4:}.0 
55.9 



p 
to 


Carbohydrates, 
grams. 


1.8 


5G.0 


4.5 


352.0 


02.2 


, 


2.7 


• • • 


• • • 


i.8 


5.4 


2;]9.5 


085.0 


, , , 


1G2.8 


1.4 


5.0 


• • • 


84.0 


20.0 


14.5 


25.0 


4:3.1 


• • • 


151.0 


• • • 


8.7 


200.0 


18.1 


22.7 


07.5 


• • • 


:«.o 


308.0 


1.8 


62.1 


0.4 


69.0 


. 


282.0 


13.0 


310.7 


2.:] 


;303.0 


CO 


;340.0 



<U O 



m 



m C *- 



o 



255 

1000 

050 

115 

127 

55 

1205 

3504 

2060 

325 

865 

285 

645 

1705 

1020 

325 

905 

1800 

335 

325 

1189 

1415 

1085 

1685 



From these tables or from Bulletin No. 28, 
United States Department of Agriculture, Office 
of Experiment Stations, or Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 142, revised edition, at least half a dozen 



Lesson III 13 

bills of fare should be made, showing the various 
combinations possible with these few substances. 
A beginning is here made in the recognition 
of the value of a given food as a producer of 
energy. The word potato or apple should bring 
up to the mind not only the shape, size, and 
color, but the part in the diet it may play. 



LESSON IV 

THE SCHOOL LUNCHEON 

THE digestion of healthy children of seven to 
fourteen years old is good ; the period is one 
of great growth, demanding a gain of from five 
to twelve grams per day. Half the nitrogenous 
food may be of animal origin. Fat is absolutely 
necessary at this age, and when the coarser 
forms are repulsive, great care must be taken 
to cfive it in a delicate or concealed form. 

o 

The incessant activity of the child in the 
open air if left to himself permits the ready 
assimilation of whatever comes to hand, but 
when confined in the too often stuffy school- 
room, the food should be selected with knowl- 
edge. The school luncheon should be super- 
vised with as great care as the food of the infant. 
A few simple rules, if followed out intelligently, 
will enable the mother or provider to furnish a 
suitable lunch. 

The food should be such as can be readily 



Lesson IV 15 

assimilated, that is, it should not be concentrated, 
as fried meat or doughnuts or rich cake or 
pastry, and it should not be highly spiced. It 
may contain some sugar, as in ice cream, because 
sugar is soluble, and if not eaten in too large 
quantities (an ounce at a time), is readily 
digested. There should be some starchy food, 
because starch is converted slowly and furnishes 
energy over a longer period of time than sugar. 
The food should be appetizing and attractively 
displayed, or, if taken from home, put up neatly. 
A study of the accompanying diagram and 
its use in calculation will be most helpful to the 
student in future work. This diagram is only 
an approximate statement of observed facts. 
The value of such generalizations lies in the 
number of observations upon which they are 
based, and in this case they are too few for a 
final decision. Further, the facts are from 
German sources almost exclusively, because no 
others gave the whole series ; and it seemed 
better to adhere to a uniform standard of calcula- 
tion in view of the great gaps in our knowledge. 
It is given in this imperfect state in order to 
induce a fuller study of the question. 



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Lesson IV 17 

From what we do know of the American 
standards, it seems probable that the curve of 
carbohydrates would be less marked, and that 
the curve of fats would be nearly coincident with 
that of the proteids, except in that part showing 
the amount from the tenth to the twentieth year, 
if drawn to represent American practice. 

The steepness of the curve of carbohydrates 
shows the need of a full supply of the material 
which serves as the source of power for the very 
great activity of youth. The child naturally 
runs all day long ; the activity, the amount of 
work done, is enormously in excess of that done 
in after life, aimless though it may seem. It is 
none the less work because it is work of heart 
and lungs, and muscular exercise in play. It is 
useful work, in that it builds up a structure for 
the grown man to use ; it is the building time, 
and the building cannot be well made, strongly 
put together, without it. This intense activity 
is required for the metabolism^ of the tissue, 
which is also rapid, as will be seen by the curve 
of proteid. If the weight of the individual at 

1 Metabolism. The cycle including both anabolism, the synthetic 
building up of tissue, and katabolism, the breaking down of that which 
has been formed. In other words, the chemical process of living. 



1 8 Food and Diet 

different ages were taken into account, this 
would be even more marked. 

It may be advisable to begin a discussion of 
the cost of material at this point, but food is 
of such importance to the child that we should 
be careful in emphasizing that question too early 
in our studies. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE FOURTH LESSON 

This may be in the form of five or ten 
lunches which the class will agree upon as de- 
sirable. A discussion of these as fulfilling the 
requirement of the diagram and, if time per- 
mits, a calculation of the food value from the 
tables in the "Dietary Computer,"^ or Bulletin 
28, or Farmer's Bulletin 142. 

1 The " Dietary Computer." Ellen H. Richards and L. H. Williams. 



LESSON V 

WHAT shall we eat as a family? What 
shall our daily fare include? 

If we look back in history and ask what early 
man ate, we find evidences in the caves and 
mounds left behind him that he ate other ani- 
mals, grains, roots, fruits, just as we do, and of 
the same kinds as the people living in the same 
conditions do today. In Asia rice for bread, in 
Peru corn and yams, in North America fish, 
berries, and roots, in the islands of the Pacific 
Ocean cocoanuts and breadfruit. 

We of today have a choice of all these things 
brought to our markets, and we have not the 
protection of race habits to keep us from eating 
the wrong thing or to show us the right quantity 
of the right thing. The early peoples had an 
abundance of one kind of food of which we 
certainly deprive ourselves — air — sand this lack 
is the cause of much, if not of most, of our ill 
health. 

19 



20 Food and Diet 

The early peoples had to work and often 
work hard for their food, and hence did not 
often get too much of it. We have food set 
before us in such abundance and variety that 
we overeat without knowing it. This causes so 
many of the illnesses from which modern man 
suffers, that, barring accidents, it may be said 
that if we are ill or ill tempered, it is likely to 
to be our food which is at fault in some of the 
many ways we have indicated. 

It is well worth our while, then, to study 
food and food substances in order that we may 
know what to value and what to avoid. There 
are many ways of learning these lessons. Here 
we will take up only a few general principles, 
leaving the more detailed study to a later stage. 

Keeping the order taken in the examination 
of the five classes of food in milk, namely, i, 
water; 2, proteid ; 3, fat; 4, sugar, carbohydrate; 
5, mineral salts ; we first ask what foods contain 
at least three-fourths of their weight of water? 
To name only those most commonly found on 
our tables, we find the following: 



Lesson V 21 

apricots milk 

asparagus onions 

blackberries oysters 

cabbage pears 

celery potatoes, boiled 

cherries strawberries 

cream strinc: beans 

cucumbers tomatoes 

green corn tripe 

We next wish to know what common food 
stuffs contain the proteids or second class in at 
least as great an amount as milk? To make 
the statement general, wc find the following to 
be true : 



Inimal Oricrin 



Veo^etable Ori(rin 


all the meats 


all the cereals 


all fish 


all breads and crackers 


all cheese 


dried apricots 


eggs 


dried figs 




all nuts 




chocolate 




beans 




peas 




lentils 



22 Food and Diet 

Food nutrients in the third class which con- 
tain as much or more fat than does milk : 

Animal Origin Vegetable Origin 

all meats, except very lean oatmeal 

only a few fish, like catfish corn meal 

and salmon crackers 

butter chestnuts 

cream peanuts 

cheese cocoanuts 

eggs walnuts 



Food substances in the fourth class which 
tai 
milk: 



contain as much or more sugar as is found in 



Vegetable 
honey syrups 

dried fruits beets 

ripe bananas 

But the adult has added starch to the sugar. 
This is not really in a separate class, because 
both come under the general term, carbohy- 
drates. Also starch yields a sugar — must, in 
fact, be changed to sugar before it is a food for 
the human body. 



Less 071 V o'x 



~ o 



It belongs to the concentrated food stuffs, 
and is found in the seeds of the grains put up 
to keep. Before we eat it we cook starch in 
much water, as cereals, or drink much water, as 
when we eat crackers. 

Food stuffs of the fifth class which contain 
as much or more mineral salts as does milk are : 

A n imal Ve ore table 

all lean meats most cereals 

cheese most vegetables 

eggs most fruits 

If we select the names of food stuffs which 
appear in all five classes, we shall have those 
materials which are sufficient of themselves for 
food, because they contain all the essential sub- 
stances, but they are very few. If we next select 
those which appear in the last four classes, we 
shall have those which, with the addition of 
water, will serve as complete foods capable of 
sustaining efficient life. 

For the rest, they must be mixed, some from 
one class and some from another, not only from 
this list but from the thousand listed food 
materials. Our food is usually so mixed. 



24 Food and Diet 

This larger list contains, however, a large 
number of needful and desirable substances 
whose food value, in the sense we have been 
using it, is nothing or very small. They are 
called food accessories, and by their flavor they 
act upon the senses of man, so that he secures 
for himself the food value locked up in the 
nutritive materials we have been studying. The 
German scientist calls these additions to our diet 
"pleasure giving things." Condiments, flavors, 
and spices play a large part in the art of cookery. 

It is quite right that we should find pleasure 
in our food as in anything else, if only we do not 
make it all pleasure and no profit: if we do 
not produce more evils than we realize good. 

Condiments too often result in over-stimula- 
tion of the secretions, and thus cause the eating 
of more food than the body needs. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE FIFTH LESSON 

Cereals, rice, etc. ; dried fruits ; extracted oils. 

Exercises making out lists of ten foods of 
equal heat-giving value, expressed in calories,^ but 
of different composition. 

1 A calorie is a unit measure of heat used to denote the energy- 
giving power of food. 



Lesson V 



25 



Samples of spices, condiments, etc. 

Make lists of condiments, with a study of 
their action, for which sec " The Spirit of 
Cookery," Thudichum, p. 86. 

The student should learn the approximate 
value of the one hundred common food materials 
on the market; that is, should be able to say 
whether there is ten or fifty per cent of starch, 
fat, etc., in a given article as bought. 



LESSON VI 

DAILY FOOD 

HAVING learned something of the natural 
food materials, we must now study diet, or 
that which goes to the table, for it is rarely in 
its natural form or as a simple food stuff. Fresh 
fruit, as apples, bananas, oranges or nuts, rad- 
ishes, celery, plain boiled potatoes are set before 
us with little or no change in form or composition, 
and are eaten with the addition of salt or sugar 
only. 

Uncooked lettuce and cucumbers are dressed 
with salad oil. The fig, raisin, and date have 
been dried, and so lost the water they once con- 
tained, while rice and oatmeal, once dry, have 
had three times their weight of water added 
before they are put on the table. Many made 
dishes contain a dozen ingredients. 

The one thing to bear in mind is that during 
the day or week we need the right amount of all 
the classes of food that the baby gets in its milk, 

26 



Lesson VI 27 

and starch in addition. But grown people can- 
not have their food weighed and measured out to 
them as the baby has, both because it is so com- 
pHcated and because, while all babies are so 
much alike, sleeping most of the time, grown 
people are very different from each other in their 
work and in their play and in their health (alas, 
that it should be so), for most of them have hurt 
their bodies in some way, so that they cannot do 
what the truly well person should be able to 
do. Hence, diet must vary for the different 
members of the same family unless they are 
normally well people, but no one should allow 
himself to become whimsical and full of ima<ri- 
nary notions. It is found that most, although 
not all, the objections people make to certain 
foods are without any foundation. The evils are 
mostly imaginary. 

Because one person ate a green banana and 
it distressed him, he eschews all bananas ever 
after. One may have eaten of veal pie when 
very tired or cold, and because a severe attack of 
indigestion followed, the blame is laid upon the 
innocent dish. 

Of these five classes of foods, then, a person 



28 Food and Diet 

needs daily about one hundred grams of dry 
proteid or nitrogenous food, about the same of 
fat, and about four times as much starch and 
sugar and other carbohydrates, or, in ounces, 
about four each of proteid and of fat, and fifteen 
ounces of carbohydrates, provided he has plenty of 
that other essential food, oxygen, in fresh air, and 
that he takes exercise enough to keep the blood 
stream flowing freely, so as to carry the prepared 
food, sufificiently diluted, to the little living cells 
referred to in the first lesson, and to bring 
away the broken up stuff they do not want, and 
which will hurt the body if it is not quickly 
brought away. 

The quantity of food eaten does not always 
correspond to the amount the body uses, hence 
the great differences found in the estimates dif- 
ferent authorities have made. It is noticeable 
that the largest eaters are neither very hard 
workers nor very stout persons. Some active, 
powerful individuals are small caters ; they often 
say they live on air, which is in a measure true. 
The food taken is burned up to the last morsel 
and gives its energy to the body. Not only 
plenty of air (brought into the lungs by exercise) 



Lesson VI 29 

but plenty of water is needed for good utilization 
of the food eaten. The reason for this is that 
all chemical changes go on more rapidly and 
completely in dilute solutions. Water is essen- 
tial to those processes by which the body is 
nourished. To use up the amount of dry food 
indicated on page 28 about six pounds, or three 
quarts, of water are needed. As has been 
shown, all this water may be in the food as 
eaten, or varying portions may be taken as 
drink. If there is too little, some of the food 
will pass out unused and some will undergo 
the wrong decompositions and cause irritation 
and finally disease. That is why so many of 
the " cures " are water cures and fruit cures. If 
a person is sent to live on grapes for a month 
it means a large amount of water is taken. The 
visits to mineral springs include much fresh air 
and exercise with the drinking of large amounts 
of water. The time of taking this water, with 
reference to the meal, belongs to the physician 
to determine. It is governed by the quantity 
and strength of the gastric juice the individual 
secretes. We are concerned with keeping welL 
and the lesson we should learn is to eat fruits 



30 Food and Diet 

which contain water naturally, vegetables, and 
foods which have taken up much water, as rice 
and cereals. If we do have dry and concentrated 
food, like crackers and cheese or pastry, much 
fluid must be drunk with it. 

Much pains should be taken to work out a 
satisfactory system of diet, for man is his own 
power producer. He must manufacture his own 
energy. It cannot be pumped into him. His 
body cannot be charged at certain stations as 
can an electric automobile. His energy is de- 
veloped inside of him by all the tiny cells to 
which the blood stream carries food. If he is 
not energetic, then his machinery is not doing 
its duty. 

Each person's diet must, therefore, furnish 
the material for this energy in such form that 
the body can set it free. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE SIXTH LESSON 

Meaning of energy and work, calorie, osmose 
through membrane, illustrated by one per cent 
sugar solution, etc. See elementary works on 
physics, physiological chemistry, etc. Release 
of energy through chemical action, batteries. 



Less 071 VI 3 1 

Solution of metals by dilute acids. When strong 
have no effect. Show a day's ration : loo grams 
dried meat or ^'g^ (allow for the water they 
still contain); loo grams of fat (not butter unless 
it has been melted and freed from water and 
curd) ; 400+ grams of starch and sugar. Trans- 
late these into a day's ration as it goes to the 
table. 



LESSON VII 

THERE are three reasons why the matter of 
diet is not so simple as the last lesson made 
it appear. 

1. Food is liable to be injured, rather than 
made more digestible, by cooking. 

2. Substances are often eaten together which 
do not make a good mixture for the blood stream 
to carry to the little cells. The latter may be 
severely injured, poisoned, as we say, and the 
person will be very ill — have an attack of cholera 
morbus or severe pain — colic, perhaps, or a 
feverish headache only; or it may be that the 
result is only a heavy, sleepy feeling, which 
wastes a whole day of valuable time. Every day 
of our short life should count for something, and 
to lose it because one ate the wrong food is 
foolish waste. 

3. The disturbing effect of mental states. 
Bearing in mind that the object of life is the 

production of energy, of power to work, to think, 

32 



Lesson VII 33 

to enjoy, progress in civilization would natu- 
rally be an increase of this power in each indi- 
vidual, and one would expect that the preparation 
of food would be so developed as to permit this 
gain in power. We are taught that this is what 
the art of cookery has done for us. In some 
cases it is true, especially where scientific research 
has found out the chemical and physical changes 
at the basis of the cookery. 

For instance, the soaking of starch in fat, the 
cooking of white of Q.gg, the frying of meat, ren- 
der the food ' material more difficult of solution, 
and therefore a larger part may escape digestion 
altogether. But this depends upon the strength 
of digestion of the individual; to some persons 
it apparently makes no difference. 

Again, cooking is supposed to produce ap- 
petizing flavors, as the roasting of coffee, the 
toasting of bread, the broiling of steak ; but 
sometimes, as in the steam cooking of cereals 
and some vegetables, flavor is lost, and artificial 
flavor, less wholesome, needs to be added to 
satisfy the palate. 

The keeping qualities of some foods are 
lessened by the addition of the water needed in 
cooking ; for instance, cereals, dried beans, etc. 



34 Food and Diet 

In other cases cooking preserves the foods, 
killing the molds, yeasts, and bacteria often 
found with the edible materials. In some cases 
this cooking lessens the digestibility, as is 
undoubtedly the case with milk as infants' 
food. 

Frying an oyster in batter is a case where the 
outer coating is made less digestible by cooking. 

Well-baked bread gives a more digestible 
starch product, a less digestible gluten. 

Of wrong mixtures it is not easy to predict. 
The effect is largely bound up with the third 
cause, i,e., mental attitude. Usually we object to 
milk with salads, especially lobster salad, because 
the milk is liable to be curdled into hard lumps, 
but it is probable also that in this case, as in 
others, a wrong chemical decomposition, not 
clearly understood, sometimes takes place, giving 
toxines or poisonous substances. 

In some cases of illness these toxines may be 
in the food, but in most they are produced after 
it is eaten. 

The reason for this bad result is the third 
cause of trouble, the inhibiting effect of mental 
emotion, or of bodily condition on the secretion 



Lesson VII 35 

of the digestive juices. Fear, anger, grief, even 
depression or lack of cheerfulness, prevent, to a 
greater or less extent, the flow of these fluids. 

Extreme cold demands all the energy of the 
body to keep up internal heat, and none is left 
for digestion. Exhaustion of nerve force leaves 
none for the work of more production of energy. 

Poisons absorbed into the blood hinder the 
necessary chemical changes. 

Inflammation of the mucous membrane pre- 
vents the passage of the fluids. 

The chief object of the thorough mastication 
of the food and its treatment with saliva in the 
mouth is to protect the stomach from overwork. 
The thoroughness with which the stomach pre- 
pares the food for the final act of digestion, 
intestinal absorption, depends upon the amount 
given it to do. It would seem as if man might 
learn this lesson readily, but the fact is that the 
average human being bolts his food and washes 
it down regardless of all physiological law. 

A reason for a certain variety in diet is that 
each class of food seems to stimulate the secre- 
tion of that fluid which is needed to convert it 
into suitable body food. For instance, meat 



36 Food and Diet 

seems to excite a flow of juice, large in quantity 
but poor in ferments, while bread causes a scanty 
but concentrated flow, which is rich in ferment. 
The formation of fixed digestive habits is 
seen to be possible, and is to be avoided. Hutch- 
ison says this fact may explain why sudden 
changes in diet are to be avoided. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE SEVENTH LESSON 

Examples of food spoiled in cooking are fried 
^g^ albumen, browned fat of meat, soggy bread, 
highly seasoned croquettes. 

Make out experiments for a study of the 
composition of and effects of heat upon food 
mixtures. 

Show examples of wrong mixtures. 

Make out lists of helps to nutrition and 
hindrances to nutrition. 

From the available text-books write out a 
concise but clear statement of the course of food 
in the body and, so far as is known, of its 
decomposition in the body. 



LESSON VIII 

THERE is some reason to believe that better 
health might be the rule if the food were 
less mixed at a meal, if the single stuffs were 
better cooked, and not cut up and worked over 
so much. Not so much fire would be required, 
not so much labor, not so much garbage would 
be left to poison air and ground, if each day 
only perfect dishes were served at our family 
tables, and few of them. There could be found 
enough combinations to go through the month, 
and thus give requisite variety. 

The world is full of theories, and, as we have 
seen, people have very individual characteristics, 
but there are two reasons why we find so many 
kinds of theories about food, and so little definite 
fact. 

I. The human organism is so highly devel- 
oped that it can adapt itself to a great variety 
of conditions. A man cast away on a tropical 
island or lost in the desert will not flourish at 
first on the unusual food, but soon becomes 

37 



38 Food and Diet 

accustomed to it. The same person may go 
from the tropics, where he lives largely on fruit, 
to the arctic regions, where he may be obliged 
to live chiefly on fat, and yet keep well. If the 
change is made gradually, no ill effect necessarily 
follows. If made suddenly, trouble results, and 
that is because of the second reason referred to 
in the last lesson. 

2. Habit, custom, reconciles the living being 
to strange conditions, but the habit once formed, 
it tends to preserve those conditions, because 
an effort is required to change and the healthy 
body abhors waste of effort. 

It is most desirable to form good habits and 
to accustom the body to variety so that energy 
may not be lost. In the formation of habits 
the mind has the leading part. It seems to 
be true that those who believe in the use of 
uncooked food, as tending to more refined and 
spiritual living, soon become accustomed to the 
use of fruits and nuts and raw grains, and get 
from them the needed nourishment. Witness 
the fruitarians and vegetarians. 

These studies of fruit and nut diet^ are most 

1 Bulletins 107 and 132, United States Department of Agriculture, 
Office of Experiment Stations. A. B— Z of Our Own Nutrition. 
Fletcher. 



Lesson VIII 



39 



interesting as confirming the view that the large 
amount of food commonly eaten is not utilized 
in the body, but is waste. 

It seems to be proved that health and 
strength and brain power may be maintained on 
a little more than half the food value commonly 
allowed if the diet is of pears, apples, bananas, 
raisins, with Brazil nuts, peanuts, and walnuts. 

The addition of some fresh vesretables with 
olive oil and of cereals and milk makes it very 
possible to subsist anyv/here without the trouble 
of the preparation of the traditional three meals. 
Habit, rather than physiological necessity, seems 
to govern our eating. 

We are told that those who believe that it is 
wrong to take life for the purpose of food soon 
come to loathe the sight and taste of meat, and 
sit down to corn and beans and bread with a 
zest quite unaccountable to the mixed food eater. 

The human body obeys the brain wonder- 
fully. But it must be remembered that habits 
require time to become second nature, and that 
most of the failures we see in the testing of new 
diets are due to sudden changes. 

It is easy to see why mankind as a rule lives 



40 Food and Diet 

on a mixed diet. According to states and con- 
ditions, the body will more readily find its pref- 
erence among a dozen materials than in two. 
If no especial care is given to the diet, then a 
variety of all kinds brings the best result with 
the least waste of energy. 

But there are a limited number of good food 
materials, and a limited number of healthful 
ways of serving them, and it is not difficult to 
exhaust them and bring on a feeling of dissatis- 
faction if too many kinds are put on the table 
in one day or at one meal. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE EIGHTH LESSON 

Examples of what might serve a family of 
six for a week if the appetite had not been 
ruined by bad habits and wrong ideas. 

Examples of fruitarian diet. 

Examples of vegetarian diet without animal 
products. 

Examples of vegetarian diet with milk, butter, 
cheese. 

Example of satisfactory diet. 



LESSON IX 

PRINCIPLES ON WHICH BILLS OF FARE ARE MADE 

THE appetite is to be stimulated, without be- 
ing satisfied, by the first course, bouillon 
rather than corn soup. The warm fluid causes 
a flow of the gastric juice because blood pres- 
sure is increased. Relishes like olives or salted 
almonds serve to remove the flavor of the last 
dish, cleanse the tongue and palate, as it were, 
for the next dish, which comes as a fresh 
pleasure. 

The sweet (a very little of it) serves to remove 
the last traces of the oily matter of the salad 
or the fat of the meat, and to give a feeling of 
sufficiency and satisfaction with the meal. 

These sensations cannot be repeated too 
many times within an hour or two without losing 
their acuteness; hence only the most perfectly 
experienced chef may dare to serve more than 
four or six courses at one meal. 

41 



42 Food and Diet 

Three or four dishes following each other, 
with the right relish before the first and s'^cond 
or second and third, is the wisest plan. 

THE PHILOSOPHY OF DINNERS 

The various elaborate orders and services from 
the time of the Renaissance down, may be con- 
densed to eight courses and three " services." 
Each service may be reduced to one dish, with 
its adjuncts. 

Thudichum gives the following example : — 
First service : 

Soup, hot and cold hors d'osuvres. 
Fish. 

Side dishes {entrees). 
Joints or removes (releves). 
Second service : 

Roasts, game, or fowl (sometimes includ- 
ing a salad). 
Savoury and sweet dishes (entremets). 
Third service : 
Cheese. 
Dessert, 
from this general order the multitudinous 
bills of fare have been evolved, but the careful 



Lesson IX 43 

housewife may console herself with Thomas 
Walker's dictum: "It is the mode I wish to 
recommend, and not any particular dishes. 
Common soup made at home, fish of little cost, 
any joints, the cheapest vegetables, some happy 
and inexpensive introduction like the crab, and a 
pudding — provided every thhig is good in qualify 
and the dishes are well dressed and served hot and 
in succession, zvith their adpcncts — will insure a 
quantity of enjoyment which no one need be 
afraid to offer." ^ 

Before the nineteenth century kings and 
statesmen were the great patrons of good cook- 
ery. The art probably culminated in the seven- 
teenth century in France, and if we wish to learn 
the secret of w^ell-made and well-served dishes, 
we must study the records of that earlier time.^ 

Thudichum, p. 649, says, " Every bill of fare 
must be the result of all kinds of practical con- 
siderations, and should never be a theoretical 
prescription culled from lists." 

" The objects for which menus are published 
in modern prints are mainly of an advertising 

1 " The Art of Dining," Hayward. 

2 Works by Soyer, DeSalis, Brillat-Savarin, and others. 



44 Food and Diet 

nature, and as printed they convey absolutely no 
information at all." 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE NINTH LESSON 

Many menus, as found in the locality. 
Exercises in preparing others after definite 
principles. 



..0) 



n 



LESSON X 

IT is sometimes necessary to provide food at a 
limited cost. In such case it is absolutely 
necessary to know two things : 

First, the approximate composition of the 
food material; and, second, to know food syno- 
nyms, or those things which may be substituted 
for each other. Otherwise the family will be 
sure to suffer; and we learned at the beginning 
that the right food was essential to health, to 
power of work, to capacity for pleasure. 

If it is as wise for all to know something of 
the value of daily food as of the value of the 
currency in their pockets, it is absolutely neces- 
sary for those who have few dollars to spend to 
know how to get their money's worth without 
sacrificing life and health. 

A large part of the art of cooking consists in 
making inexpensive food material palatable and 
attractive. 

The first step is to disabuse ourselves of the 

45 



46 Food a7id Diet 

idea that " cheap " food is poor food. A sub- 
stance is inexpensive for several reasons, chief of 
which is its abundance ; then its power of keep- 
ing and of being transported without loss ; the 
nearness of the market to the place of consump- 
tion ; often its bulk in proportion to its food 
value. Milk is dear food in the city because 
^'] per cent of water must be brought scores of 
miles in wagon and car to get 1 3 per cent of food 
material to the consumer. 

Wheat flour is cheap because ^'] per cent of 
it is food material, and it will keep safely while 
stored or transported. 

Products of sun and wind and rain and soil, 
with very little of man's labor, are inexpensive 
where they grow ; and those that will bear keep- 
ing and transportation are inexpensive anywhere 
on steamboat or railroad lines. 

Products which involve many transformations 
of raw material, as flesh of cattle which eat the 
first products of the soil, and which requires 
much handling, and, besides, is perishable ; deli- 
cate fruits and vegetables grown with a shelter 
and much human labor are expensive, not be- 
cause they are better food material, but because 
they cost more to produce. 



Lesson X 47 

As an example of what may be done if there is 
an incentive to stimulate interest and cause satis- 
faction, the following is taken from Bulletin 129, 
United States Department of Agriculture, Office 
of Experiment Stations : 

" In February, 1902, the students of the Bible 
Normal College, situated then in Springfield, 
Mass. (now in Hartford, Conn., and affiliated with 
the Hartford Theological Seminary and desig- 
nated School of Religious Pedagogy), voted to 
save a sum of money, which they desired to raise 
for a special object, by reducing the cost of their 
table board. They had been paying ^3 per 
week for table board at the time, or very nearly 
43 cents per person per day, which, of course, 
included the cost of fuel, preparation, and serv- 
ice, estimated to be 10.6 cents per person per 
day. Learning that it has been found possible 
to provide a balanced and nourishing diet for 
10 cents per man per day for the raw food, they 
entered eagerly into an experiment with a diet 
to cost that amount for food materials only, the 
cost of preparation, etc., to remain the same as 
before, making the total cost of the daily food 
as served 20.6 cents per person, or 22.4 cents 



48 Food and Diet 

less than their ordinary diet. There were thirty 
students interested in this project, and it was 
planned to continue the investigation three days, 
as this would suffice to save the $20 desired. 

" It was believed that the results of a dietary 
study of the family during this period would be 
of some value, as showing some of the possibil- 
ities of a practical application of the results of 
nutrition investigations. The meals provided 
were enjoyed, and at the end of three days, 
although the desired sum had been saved and 
there was no longer this incentive, all the per- 
sons concerned were sufficiently interested in 
the trial to ask to have it continued three days 
longer when they learned that the results for 
such a period would be of considerably more 
value from a scientific standpoint than those of 
a study carried on for three days only. The 
details of the investigation are given herewith. 

" The method of conducting the investigation 
was essentially the same as that usually followed. 
After a study of the available food supply and 
the cost of food in the local market, menus were 
prepared which it was believed would be fairly 
satisfactory, and which would fulfill the require- 



Lesso7t X 49 

ments as regards cost and nutritive value. The 
amounts of the various materials which it was 
calculated would be required during the period 
were then set aside to be used as needed, the 
plan being to provide generously of the chief 
and less expensive dishes, with enough of the 
more expensive foods to give the needed variety. 
Whatever material was left at the close of the 
study was subtracted from the amount provided, 
and the difference was assumed to represent the 
amount used. Generally speaking, the estimated 
amounts proved amply sufficient, but it was 
found necessary during the study to purchase 
some articles in addition to those planned for, 
and all such foods were also included in estimat- 
ing the total amounts eaten. 

" None of the foods were analyzed. The 
composition of all but two of the different 
articles was assumed from average values for 
similar food materials (United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Sta- 
tions, Bulletin 28, revised). The composition of 
the chocolate candy (fudge) was calculated from 
that of the materials used in making it, and the 
composition of apple jelly was taken from a 



50 Food and Diet 

compilation not yet published. The assumed 
values for the composition of the materials eaten 
in this study are included in Table 29 of the 
Appendix. 

" The menus for the different days covered 
by the study were as follows : 

Saturday, February 8 

Breakfast: Oatmeal and top of milk, fish cakes, toast (with a little 
butter), prunes, milk and cereal coffee. 

Dinner : Beef soup, croutons, beans (baked with pork), brown bread, 
apricot shortcake. 

Supper: Sandwiches (cheese and jelly), white and graham bread, 
(no butter), sliced bananas, milk. 

Sunday, February 9 

Breakfast: Commeal mush and top of milk, baked beans, buns, milk, 

and cereal coffee. 
Dinner: Split pea soup and crackers (crisped), potted beef, brown 

sauce, baked potatoes, bread, rice, with milk and 

sugar. 
Supper: Brown bread sandwiches (with a little butter), white bread 

sandwiches with date and peanut filling, without butter, 

cocoa, popcorn salted. 

Monday, February io 

Breakfast : Oatmeal, with top of milk, cream toast, cereal coffee. 
Dinner: Baked bean soup, crisp crackers, Hamburg steak balls, 

brown sauce, hominy, turnip, peanuts, and dates. 
Supper : Potato and beet salad, gingerbread, cheese, bread, milk. 



Lesson X 



Tuesday, February ii 



51 



Breakfast: Wheat breakfast food and dates, creamed codfish, muffins 
(with little butter), milk, and cereal coffee. 

Dinner : Beef stew, with biscuits, bread pudding, bread. 

Supper: Scalloped meat and potato, bread (with butter), prunes, 
chocolate candy " fudge." 

Wednesday, February 12 

Breakfast : Oatmeal, with top of milk, hash, corn cake, milk, and cereal 

coffee. "*■ 
Dinner: Vegetable soup, croutons, baked stuffed beef's heart, 

brown sauce, rice, cornstarch blanc mange, caramel 

sauce. 
Supper: Potato and celery salad, white and graham bread, fried 

cornmeal mush, syrup. 

Thursday, February 13 

Breakfast: Cornmeal mush, with top of milk, hashed meat on toast, 

milk, and cereal coffee. 
Dinner : Salt salmon, drawn V>utter sauce, baked potatoes, parsnips, 

bread, evaporated apple shortcake. 
Supper: Cold sliced beef's heart, creamed potatoes, cocoa, bread 

(white and graham), ginger snaps- 



" The family in this experiment consisted of 
thirty students, twenty-six women and four men, 
ranging in age from twenty-five to forty-five 
years." 

The Science and Art of Cookery combined 
should enable us so to prepare the inexpensive 



52 Food and Diet 

as to produce the most satisfactory flavor, 
texture, temperature, and consistency, and to use 
the expensive to enhance the pleasure of the 
table just sufflciently, and not to the injury of 
the aim of all living, the production of the happy, 
healthy, efficient human being. 

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE TENTH LESSON 

Exercises in selection of the satisfactory com- 
binations in a variety of ways suited to the tastes 
of the class and the markets in the locality. 

A few examples of bills of fare covering three 
weeks' time, because the members of the family 
will not keep tally of the menu, and know just 
what to expect day by day. 



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